BlueNalu, a cell-based/cultured seafood developer, is known for it's unique offering of Bluefin Tuna Toro. What part of tuna does the animal-based tuna toro come from?
Fatty belly cut of tuna.
What is the name of the protein responsible for oxygen transport in the body?
Hemoglobin
Which class/type of enzyme inhibition is hypothetical? A. Competitive B. Non-competitive C. Uncompetitive D. None of the above
C. Uncompetitive
What is the substrate for lactate dehydrogenase in glycolysis to produce lactate?
Pyruvate
What does BT stand for in BT corn?
Bacillus Thuringiensis
In the assessment of GMO foods, herbicides and pesticides, the USDA, FDA, and EPA utilize a 6-criterion list, which is often referred to as FONSI; what does the acronym FONSI stand for?
Finding Of No Significant Impact
Name 6 substrates that can be used for gluconeogenesis.
What are the noncoding sequences of DNA which are removed during RNA splicing?
Intron
Name 3 factors useful in controlling enzyme activity.
Temperature, water content and activity, pH, chemicals, alteration of substrates, alterations of products, preprocessing controls.
What is the equation named after German and Canadian scientist used in catalysis?
Michaelis Menten equation
A non-substrate molecule binds to an enzyme, which enables it to bind to a substrate it previously could not. What likely is that molecule?
A. Non-competitive inhibitor B. Competitive inhibitor C. Uncompetitive inhibitor D. Activator
D. Activator
Golden rice was genetically modified to produce beta-carotene whereas purple tomato was genetically modified to produce what compound?
Anthocyanin
Give five types of RNA.
mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, small nuclear RNA, regulatory RNA, ribozymes, double stranded RNA, signal recognition particle RNA, transfer messenger RNA
Which of the following statements regarding the bovine growth hormone, or bovine somatotropin (bST), is true? More than one statement may be true.
a) bST, when consumed by humans, is broken down into active fragments by normal human digestion
b) bST is normally found in cow's milk, even if the cow is not administered additional bST.
c) If injected into humans, bST is inactive and has no observable effect.
d) Milk from cows treated with bST contains bST in amounts comparable to the upper limits of levels found in untreated cows.
All are true
Minute hair-like projections on the apical surface of enterocytes that increase surface area for absorption of nutrients?
Microvilli/Brush Border
Golden rice was genetically modified to produce what compound?
Beta carotene
What two (2) hormones are produced from tryptophan metabolism?
Serotonin and Melatonin
Both glycogenesis and glycogenolysis are controlled primarily by the interplay between the two hormones insulin and ______.
Glucagon
What vitamin is required to activate pyruvate carboxylase?
Biotin (B7)
What essential amino acid is a precursor for Tyrosine?
Phenylalanine
What is the major protein digesting enzyme in the gut and from what organ is it secreted (synthesized)?
Chymotrypsin/ trypsin, secreted from the pancreas
How does ATP become ADP?
By transferring its terminal phosphate group to an acceptor molecule.
Why is uncompetitive inhibition considered "hypothetical"?
The enzyme-substrate complex is too brief to be observed
What does ATP stand for?
Adenosine TriPhosphate
The most popular bacterium for genetic engineering is __________
Escherichia coli
Introducing multiple copies of a gene in a host is called what?
Gene amplification
What scientist won a nobel prize for being the first to deduce the amino acid sequence of insulin and second for being the first to sequence DNA?
Frederick sanger
As a percent, how much total sugar is consumed in the brain?
0.6
What is the circular, single stranded exonuclear DNA known as?
Plasmid
What gene-editing technology uses a guide RNA to target specific DNA sequences?
CRISPR-Cas9.
What “omics†approach focuses on the complete set of small-molecule metabolites in a food system?
Metabolomics.
A glycogen molecule that has been degraded to its branch points is called a?
Limit dextrin
Fructose enters the glycolytic pathway as what compound?
Fructose-6-phosphate
What are the two major pathways involved in the aerobic metabolism of glucose?
Glycolysis and the TCA/Krebs cycle
In relaxed muscle, what form is ATP in?
ATP/mg complex, indicating it is bound to magnesium ions in the muscle.
What term refers to the physical location of a gene on a strand of DNA?
Locus, plural is loci.
Name 3 reasons it is advantageous to obtain enzymes from microorganisms.
Microorganisms are very versatile, MO's can be altered by mutations or genetic engineering to produce a greater quantity of enzyme or different enzymes, recovery of enzymes is often easy, readily available, high rate of growth and enzyme production.
By definition, an alpha-helix peptide chain contains how many amino acid residues per turn?
3.6
Name 3 methods used for DNA fingerprinting.
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP), Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)-Based Fingerprinting, Short Tandem Repeat (STR) Analysis, AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism), DNA Sequencing, Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Analysis
What is the rate limiting step of cholesterol synthesis in the liver?
Hmg-Co-reductase
What is the primary advantage of using CRISPR-Cas systems over earlier gene-editing technologies?
High specificity, efficiency, and ease of design.
What does the term phenotype refer to?
The observable properties of an organism.
What is the sum of all chemical reactions in an organism?
Metabolism
What two amino acids have the highest pKa?
Arginine and lysine
Which is the first company approved by FDA to launch cultivated (lab-grown) seafood in US?
Wildtype
What is the primary function of a plasmid in genetic engineering?
Acts as a vector to carry foreign DNA.
What does GMO and CRISPR stand for? State the difference between them.
CRISPR is a more precise gene-editing technique that can make specific changes within an organism's existing DNA, while GMOs typically involve introducing foreign DNA from one species into another.
What type of gene identifies which cells have been transformed in gene transfer work?
Reporter gene
What is another name for the long twisted ladder appearance of a DNA molecule?
Double helix
What are the 3 characteristics that make the 16S RNA genes ideal as a phylogenetic molecule?
1. Highly conserved across different species of bacteria and archaea. These conserved regions allow for the design of universal primers, making it easier to amplify the gene from a wide variety of organisms.
2. Universally present in all prokaryotes, making it a universal marker for studying the evolutionary relationships between these organisms. This ubiquity allows for broad comparisons across diverse taxa.
3. Easy to obtain
4. Has multiple copies
Which of the following bacteria has been used to transfer DNA to food crops? A. rhizobalin boloni B. Pseudomonas cotita, C. lactobacillus planatarum, D. agrobacterium tumefaciens
D. agrobacterium tumefaciens
Which enzyme is responsible for the conversion of pyruvic acid to lactic acid in fermentation?
Lactate dehydrogenase
What is the function of Lohmann reaction which uses ATP creatine phosphotransferase?
To replenish ATP
What does PCR stand for? Why is it used?
It is polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and used to "amplify" - copy - small segments of DNA.
What compound is formed after methionine demethylation?
Homocysteine
What are the coenzyme forms of niacin?
NAD, NADP
How many polypeptide chains make up an antibody?
Four
List two (2) hormones/neurotransmitters that can be produced from tyrosine metabolism.
In glycolysis ___ moles of NADH are produced per mole of glucose consumed.
2
In mammals, what is the process by which eggs or ova are produced?
Oogenesis
In mammalian cells, when oxygen is not present, what enzyme produces NAD+?
Lactate Dehydrogenase
A transgenic organism can be defined as?
An organism containing/modified with foreign DNA.
Name a hormone that suppresses appetite.
Cholecystokinin, leptin, PYY (peptide YY), etc.
The production of ethanol and lactate from glucose using phosphoketolase and lactate dehydrogenase enzymes is called the PPP pathway. What does PPP stand for?
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Which element is required for optimal utilization of glucose by aiding in the binding of insulin?
Chromium
What enzyme is used in the dairy industry to coagulate milk proteins for cheese making, which was traditionally sourced from calf stomachs but is now largely produced via fermentation (FPC)?
Chymosin (or Rennin)
In enzymology, what is turnover number?
Moles of substate converted to product by an enzyme molecule (activation site) in a given time period
Name four organs in which Hexokinase D is found.
Liver, pancreas, small intestine, brain (more specifically hypothalamus).
What is a transformation in terms of biotechnology?
Genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the direct uptake and incorporation of exogenous genetic material from its surroundings through the cell membrane(s). Bacteria can acquire new genetic material by taking up free DNA (often plasmids) from their surroundings.
What does GMP stand for with respect to nucleotides?
Guanosine Monophosphate
The expenditure of energy required to maintain basic life processes is called BMR. What does BMR stand for?
Basal Metabolic Rate
Insulin is found in a complex with what mineral?
Zinc
What does DNA stand for in biochemistry?
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
What is CRISPR used for in food biotechnology?
Gene editing
What is the general term for the process in which yeast converts sugars into ethanol and carbon dioxide?
Fermentation
What is the common name for recombinant DNA technology?
Gene Splicing
Name two fermentation sources of chymosin.
Kluyveromyces marxianus variety lactis, E. coli, Aspergillus niger
What compound is said to be the link between carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism?
Acetyl-coA
What enzyme is used to cut DNA at specific recognition sequences in genetic engineering?
Restriction endonuclease.
Whenever ATP generation is coupled directly with a specific reaction in a metabolic pathway, it is referred to as what type of phosphorylation?
Substrate-level phosphorylation
The major carbohydrate fuel for most organisms is?
Glucose
The principal products of the pentose phosphate pathway include which two compounds? What roles do they play in metabolism?
Ribose-5-phosphate sugar used to make DNA and RNA, and the NADPH molecules which help with building other molecules
What is the last phase of mitosis?
Telophase
What growth factor cannot be used in cows in England?
Bovine somatotropin
In molecular biology, what is a vector?
A self-replicating high molecular weight DNA sequence that can be absorbed by the host cell, leading to expression of the inserted gene. In other words, a vector is a DNA molecule that is used to transport foreign genetic material into a host cell.
Name the enzyme that converts glucose to fructose and vice versa.
Glucose isomerase
What are the final products of aerobic oxidation of sucrose and starch (or carbohydrates) in plant cells?
Carbon dioxide, water, ATP.
In which direction does DNA replicate?
5' to 3'
The glycolytic pathway was the first major metabolic sequence to be elucidated. Most of the decisive work was done in the 1930's by the German biochemists Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof, and Jakub Karol Parnas, whom gave the sequence what alternative name?
The Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway
Which gene-editing outcome results from non-homologous end joining (NHEJ)?
Insertions or deletions (indels).
What is the main function of gluconeogenesis?
Synthesis of glucose from smaller precursors to be used by the brain
What muscle enzyme catalyzes the formation of glucose-1-phosphate from glycogen?
Phosphorylase
What was the first food ingredient developed via genetic engineering techniques and approved by the FDA?
Chymosin (not rennet, only animal source can be called rennet)
What is a diauxic shift?
A diauxic shift is a metabolic change that occurs when a cell switches from using glucose for fermentation to using oxygen for respiration after glucose is depleted. It's a process that happens in yeast cells.
What does NAD stand for?
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
The principal products of the pentose phosphate pathway include which two compounds?
NADPH (reducing agent), ribose 5-phosphate.
(True/false) Genetic engineering involves splicing chromosomal genes into a bacterial plasmid and later allowing the chromosomal gene to be expressed by a bacterium.
True
Which hormone activates phosphoprotein phosphatase?
Insulin
What does FAD stand for in biochemistry?
Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide
Which glucose transporter is sensitive to insulin?
GLUT4
As compared to an aerobic cell, does an anaerobic cell have to consume much larger, much smaller, or the same quantities of glucose per unit of time to accomplish the same amount of cellular work?
Much larger amounts of glucose
Cori's disease causes body's ability to break down which energy storage molecule?
Glycogen debrancher enzyme deficiency in liver.
What was the first ingredient made via recombinant DNA technology?
Insulin
What does mRNA stand for in biochemistry?
Messenger RNA
How many molecules of ATP will each of the following yield when they are oxidized by the ETC: a) FADH2 b) NADH + H+?
FADH2 yields 2 ATP; NADH + H+ yields 3 ATP
In the US, a food additive derived by biotechnology:
A. must be declared and identified as such in the ingredient statement B. are subject to the same regulatory approval process as other food additives C. must be declared and identified as such in the principal display panel D. all of the above
D. All of the above
What is the optimal blood glucose range in milligrams per deciliter?
70-100 mg/dL (3.9-5.5 mmol/L)
What is the role of creatine phosphate in muscle contraction and rigor mortis?
During muscle contraction, it transfers a phosphate group to ADP to form ATP. In rigor mortis, it decreases ATP formation.
What does GMO stand for?
Genetically Modified Organism
Glycolysis comes from the Greek roots glykos and lysis. What are the literal interpretations of these two terms?
Glykos means sweet, and lysis means losing/disappearing/breaking down. Overall, it means a loss of sweetness
Phosphorylation is a post translational modification of protein essential for their function. Name three amino acids that can be phosphorylated.
Serine, threonine, tyrosine
In an enzymatic assay intended to measure enzyme activity, should the substrate concentration be much greater than the km or much smaller than the km?
The substrate concentration must be much greater than the km so the that the reaction is 1st order with respect to enzyme and zero order with respect to substrate.
What two compounds buildup during vigorous exericse?
NADH, Lactate
What is the term for the full collection of genes present in a population of genetically similar organisms?
Gene pool
What template is used to conduct real-time PCR?
cDNA (Complementary DNA)
In genetic engineering, what is the name of the cell that receives the DNA?
What regulatory challenge is currently debated for cell-cultured meat regarding product labeling?
Use of traditional meat terms (e.g., “beef,†“chickenâ€) versus qualifying language.
PEP-PTS is a transport system that plays a vital role in fermentation by lactic acid bacteria. What does PEP-PTS stand for?
Phosphoenolpyruvate-Phosphotransferase System
What is the difference between recombinant bovine growth hormone and natural bovine growth hormone?
Recombinant version has an additional Methionine
What is the substrate for catalase?
Hydrogen peroxide
The Crabtree effect in yeast is?
The Crabtree effect is a metabolic process in yeast that allows it to use fermentation instead of respiration to produce energy. This process occurs when there is excess glucose and oxygen present.
What is bovine somatotropin used for?
Known as BST for short, it is a bovine growth hormone used to increase milk production in cows
In organisms that create alcohol, pyruvate must first be converted to what compound before being converted to alcohol?
Acetylaldehyde
How many molecules of ATP are produced from the complete oxidation of one mole of glucose to CO2 and H2O?
38 (30-32 also acceptable)
What are the 3 major end products of food fermentations?
Lactic acid, acetic acid, ethanol, CO2
Thinking, memory, and learning in the brain are closely linked to what levels in the body?
Glucose
Taq polymerase is a thermostable DNA polymerase I named after the thermophilic eubacterial microorganism _____________
Thermus aquaticus
What is the term for a substance that causes birth defects or malformations in an embryo or fetus?
Teratogen
What is the mode of DNA transfer which uses a vector such as virus?
Transduction
Which of these are not part of the enzymes used for cloning?
A. Restriction endonucleases
B. DNA ligase
C. Alkaline phosphatases
D. Acetylases
D. Acetylases
What compound is the precursor to glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway in respiration of plant tissues?
Glucose-6-phosphate
In genetic engineering, what is the specific class of enzyme used to cut DNA at specific nucleotide sequences?
In anaerobic metabolism, pyruvate can be converted into what two intermediates?
Lactate (lactic acid in muscle) and ethanol/CO2
How many molecules of oxygen are in glucose?
6
What is the term for a complete set of genetic material in an organism?
Genome
What are the two most common methods of introducing foreign DNA into a cell?
Transformation, transfection
What is the protoplasm of cells mostly composed of?
Water
Glucose can be broken down either aerobically or anaerobically using what pathway?
Glycolysis EMB pathway
A gene with reversed orientation with respect to its regulatory sequence is called what?
Antisense gene.
What does S stand for in 30S, 50S and 70S ribosomes and what does it measure?
S stands for Svedberg unit, a non-metric unit for sedimentation rate. A unit used to measure how fast molecules move in an ultracentrifuge.
What is the difference between competitve and noncompetitive inhibition?
A competitive inhibitor directly competes with a substrate for binding to the enzyme's active site, while a noncompetitive inhibitor binds to a separate site on the enzyme (called an allosteric site), causing a conformational change that indirectly prevents the substrate from binding effectively; essentially, the competitive inhibitor "blocks" the active site, while the noncompetitive inhibitor alters the enzyme's shape to hinder substrate binding.
What's the name of two enzymes that can perform the same function?
Isoenzymes
What substance did Canadians Charles Best and Frederick Banting discover in 1922 while studying the pancreas of dogs?
Insulin
The unit of measure for enzymes are IU's or International Units; what is the definition of an IU?
An international unit of enzyme activity is the amount of enzyme causing transformation of 1.0 micromol of substrate per minute at standard conditions.
What is produced from yeasts in the mixing of dough?
CO2 and Ethanol
What major substrate cannot be used for gluconeogenesis?
Fatty Acids (Acetyl-CoA)
What class of proteins exert kinetic control over thermodynamic potential?
Enzymes
What enzyme is used in CRISPR-Cas9 systems to cut DNA?
Cas9 endonuclease.
What is the product of a reverse transcriptase?
cDNA
What is the first enzyme in glycolysis that introduces a glucose molecule into the cell?
Hexokinase
What technique uses CRISPR-Cas9 primarily for what purpose?
Targeted genome editing
What term describes the insertion of a gene from one species into another?
Transgenesis.
What alternative-protein production approach uses genetically engineered microorganisms to produce animal-identical proteins without animals?
Precision fermentation.
What fermentation approach uses microorganisms to produce specific functional proteins?
Precision fermentation.
What is the P/O ratio wrt respiration?
The number of molecules of ATP produced per gram atom of oxygen
Name three functions of enzymes used as food additives.
Speed up reaction; lower viscosity; improve extractions; enhance separations; improve their flavor, texture, digestibility, and nutritional value, enhancing product yield, improve preservation
What is catalase?
An enzyme that converts hydrogen peroxide to water + oxygen
Which enzyme converts glucose to gluconic acid in food biotechnology?
Glucose oxidase.
What reaction does the enzyme "reverse transcriptase" catalyze?
RNA transcribed to cDNA
With regard to ATP production, aerobic metabolism is how many times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism?
19X. Aerobic metabolism produces 38 ATP, while anaerobic metabolism produces 2 ATP
What part of the cell contains the enzyme to complete gluconeogenesis?
Endoplasmic reticulum
What is the common vector for inserting foreign genes into a bacteria?
Plasmid
What is the term used to describe the process of using biological processes to solve environmental problems?
Bioremediation
Which 2 vitamins are required for cell division?
Folacin (folic acid) and B12 (cobalamin)
What is the process of cell–cell communication that allows bacteria to share information about cell density and adjust gene expression accordingly?
Quorum sensing
Nicotinamide and riboflavin are necessary in the diets of humans. They play a role in energy metabolism as constituents of what type of important compounds?
Coenzymes (proton and electron carriers)
What is the term for an organism whose genome has been altered using recombinant DNA technology?
Genetically Modified Organism (GMO).
What is the fate of excess dietary amino acids? A. Stored for future metabolic use B. Excreted C. Used to synthesize proteins D. Converted to intermediates
D. Converted to intermediates (pyruvate, oxaloacetate, and alpha-ketoglutarate)
Which of the following enzyme is used to cut DNA: Conversion, Mannic, Conjungtion and restriction
Restriction
What is the scientific term for an increase in the size of the cells in an organism?
Hypertrophy
Which vitamin provides the cofactor for pyruvate dehydrogenase?
Thiamine
What is the function of plasmids in genetic engineering?
They serve as vectors for transferring genes between organisms.
What microorganism is commonly used to produce recombinant enzymes for food applications?
Escherichia coli or yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
Enzymes that catalyze transphosphorylation are called what?
Kinases
What are three major fuel molecules for ATP production?
Glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids
Malic acid, oxaloacetic acid, α-ketoglutaric acid, and citric acid are important intermediates of what metabolic cycle?
Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) or Krebs cycle
In genetics what is conjugation?
Genetic material is transferred directly from one bacterium (the donor) to another (the recipient) through a physical connection (a pilus).
Describe the steps involved in recombinant DNA technology.
Isolation of the desired gene.
Insertion into a vector (e.g., plasmid).
Transformation into host cells.
Selection and screening for successful transformants.
Expression of the recombinant protein.
Which class/type of enzyme inhibition is also known as mixed inhibition? A. Competitive B. Non-competitive C. Uncompetitive D. None of the above
B. Non-competitive
What is the Pasteur effect in terms of metabolism?
The Pasteur effect is a biological phenomenon that describes how oxygen affects the production of energy in cells. It can refer to how oxygen affects yeast fermentation, platelet storage, or the metabolism of cells. The Pasteur effect can also refer to how oxygen suppresses the accumulation of products from anaerobic metabolism. It can also be attributed to changes in the balance of phosphate compounds.
What is an enzymatic digestion of animal tissues, which is commonly used in the prep of culture media for the production of toxins, and in the fermentation industry for starter cultures?
Proteose peptone
Name what the following blotting techniques detect for: Southern, Northern, Western, Eastern, Far-western, Southwestern
Southern: DNA
Northern: RNA
Western: Proteins
Eastern: Post-translational modifications of proteins (like lipids, carbohydrates)
Far-western: Protein-protein interactions
Southwestern: DNA-binding proteins
Name the 3 classes of inhibition and state if they are real or hypothetical.
Messenger RNA is synthesized by what process according to the Central Dogma theory?
Transcription
What 2 amino acids are aspartame derived from?
Aspartic acid and phenylalanine
What role does leptin play in the body?
Leptin helps regulate appetite/hunger and metabolism
What is the difference between PCR and real time PCR?
Real time or qPCR differs from regular PCR in that it quantifies the amount of DNA (or cDNA) in real-time during the amplification process using fluorescent dyes or probes that emit signals as the DNA amplifies. This allows for the measurement of gene expression levels or DNA quantities during each cycle.
What is the complementary nucleotide sequence to A-G-C-T?
T-C-G-A
In the International Union of Biochemistry system of enzyme nomenclature, the first number identifies what?
General reaction type/class of the enzyme
The Embden-Myerhof pathway is also referred to as what?
Glycolytic pathway or glycolysis
The use of a highly exergonic reaction in the beginning of a catabolic pathway is referred to as?
"Activation" or "Turbo design".
What term describes an organism that has had genes from another species integrated into its genome through recombinant DNA technology?
Transgenic (or Genetically Modified Organism/GMO)
What enzyme catalyses the conversion of acetaldehyde to ethanol in fermentation?
Alcohol dehydrogenase
Describe the process of fermentation in yogurt production, naming the organisms and their metabolic roles.
Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus ferment lactose → produce lactic acid → decrease pH → cause casein coagulation → yield flavor compounds (acetaldehyde, diacetyl).
What is the template for PCR and Real Time PCR?
DNA for both
What does the acronym NADP stand for?
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate
Why do 50S and 30S make 70S ribosomes not 80S?
70S ribosome is made up of 50S and 30S, and its total is not 80S because the sedimentation rate of a particular ribosome is not equal to the total of 50S and 30S subunits. The sedimentation rate is less than the total of two subunits.
What are primary and secondary metabolites?
A primary metabolite is directly involved in the normal growth, development, and reproduction. A secondary metabolite is not directly involved in those processes, but usually has important ecological function (ex. antibiotics and pigments).
Why is real time PCR also known as qPCR?
qPCR stands for quantitative PCR. It quantifies the amount of DNA (or cDNA) in real-time during the amplification process using fluorescent dyes or probes that emit signals as the DNA amplifies.
What is the term for inserting a gene from one organism into another?
Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology.
Metabolism is often sub-divided into two specific processes, anabolism and catabolism. What is the principle difference between these processes?
Anabolism involves synthetic reactions, and catabolism involves destructive reactions to release energy.
From a microbial point of view, what is the main purpose of fermentation?
Free up NAD to keep glycolysis running
What are immobilized enzymes? Name 3 applications of immobilized enzymes in industry.
Immobilized enzymes are enzymes attached to an inert, insoluble material, allowing for their repeated use and continuous operation in various processes.
Lipase: Used in the production of emulsifiers, flavors, fragrances, cosmetics, thermoplastics, agrochemicals, and biofuels.
Amylase: Used in the food industry for starch hydrolysis, and in the production of biofuels.
Beta-galactosidase: Used in the production of lactose-free dairy products.
Penicillin G acylase: Used in the production of penicillin.
Invertase: Used in the production of invert sugar.
Proteases: Used in the food industry for protein hydrolysis.
Pectinase: Used in the food industry for clarifying fruit juice.
In genetic engineering, what type of enzyme is used to cut DNA at specific nucleotide sequences, which is fundamental to creating recombinant DNA?
Differentiate between homofermentative and heterofermentative lactic acid fermentations.
Homo: glucose converted to lactic acid
Hetero: glucose (and possibly other substrates) converted to lactic acid, ethanol, acetic acid, CO2
In the context of PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) used in food pathogen detection, name the three discrete temperature steps in one cycle and what occurs at each step.
1. Denaturation (High temp): DNA strands separate; 2. Annealing (Lower temp): Primers bind to target sequences; 3. Extension (Intermediate temp): DNA polymerase synthesizes the new DNA strand.
What metabolic pathway converts glucose to ethanol in yeast?
Alcoholic fermentation (via glycolysis and pyruvate decarboxylation).
An enzyme family called the _____ catalyzes the phosphorylation of hexoses in the body.
Hexokinases.
What type of plant breeding breeds successive generations of plants among themselves?
Line Breeding
Conversion of fructose 6 phosphate to fructose 1,6 bisphosphate has two purposes. One is the commitment of the molecule to glycolysis, the second is?
To prevent any later product from diffusing out of the cell because charged molecules cannot easily cross membranes.
Define the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures of proteins.
Primary: amino acid sequence
Secondary: alpha-helix, beta sheet.
Tertiary: one complete polypeptide chain with cross bonds linking it together.
Quaternary: multiple polypeptide chains assembled as one.
What is the term for an organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques (often referred to in food science as GE or GM foods)?
The antisense strand is a DNA strand that is non-coding and serves as a template for the production of messenger RNA (mRNA). It is also known as the template strand.
What do we call high-protein food from yeast and other microorganisms?
Single cell protein or SCP
(True/False) Reverse transcriptase is an enzyme that allows genetic information from RNA to be transmitted into cDNA.
True
What is the function of glucagon?
Release glucose from storage to raise blood sugar levels (glycogenolysis)
Discuss the role of precision fermentation in alternative protein development.
Precision fermentation uses genetically engineered microbes to produce specific proteins (e.g., casein, whey, heme), enabling sustainable, animal-free alternatives with controlled functionality and scalability.
What is the main goal of golden rice biotechnology?
To increase provitamin A (beta-carotene) content to combat vitamin A deficiency.
What is the term for genetically engineered crops designed to resist herbicides?
Herbicide-tolerant crops
What is the process of transferring DNA between bacteria called?
Conjugation
The final product of glycolysis is?
Pyruvate
Explain how genetically modified corn resists insect pests.
Bt corn expresses Bacillus thuringiensis toxin genes, producing proteins toxic to specific insect larvae but safe for humans.
Name the two parts of Central Dogma theory.
(1) Transcription (DNA → mRNA; in nucleus)
(2) Translation (mRNA → protein; in ribosomes)
Name the first human milk protein gene to be expressed in crops.
Beta casein (CSN2)
What type of enzyme is used in cheese production to hydrolyze κ-casein?
Chymosin (rennin)
How many moles of ATP are yielded per mole of glucose in anaerobic glycolysis and in aerobic respiration?
2 moles in anaerobic glycolysis; 38 moles in aerobic respiration.
A polypeptide antibiotic produced by some Streptococcus lactis strains is called what?
Lactostrepcin
Explain the difference between transgenic and cisgenic crops.
Transgenic crops contain genes from unrelated species, while cisgenic crops contain genes from the same or closely related species.
Which two organs conduct gluconeogenesis?
Liver, Kidney
The storage molecule of Glucose in liver & skeletal muscle for animals is?
Glycogen
What does IMP stand for with respect to nucleotides?
Inosine Monophosphate
What two assumptions are made in the Michaelis-Menten equation?
Formation of enzyme-substrate complex, rapid equilibrium with free enzyme
In anaerobic organisms, pyruvate is used to regenerate what?
NAD+
What is NSLAB and what are 3 examples?
Non-Starter Lactic Acid Bacteria; Lactobacillus curvatus, L. plantarum, Lactobacillus casei
What is the percent RNA and protein in a ribosome?
60% RNA, 40% protein
What is the major rate limiting or regulatory enzyme in glycolysis?
Phosphofructokinase
Name the chemical compound that stores energy.
ATP
Name the smallest & largest amino acid by molecular weight.
Glycine and tryptophan
Name the first genetically modified produce allowed by the FDA to hit the market.
Flavr-Savr tomatoes
Name three companies that have received regulatory approval in US to produce and sell lab-grown meat and seafood.
Good meat (owned by Eat Just), Upside Foods, Wildtype
What is the average glucose concentration in the cell?
4 mM (0.4-6 mM range)
In genetics, what is transduction?
Transduction is the process by which a virus transfers genetic material from one bacterium to another. Viruses called bacteriophages are able to infect bacterial cells and use them as hosts (living cell) to make more viruses.
Gluconeogenesis occurs primarily in which organ?
Liver
What does cAMP stand for in biotechnology?
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate
Which transporter lies on the basolateral membrane of enterocytes and facilitates the movement of hexoses to the portal blood?
GLUT2
Name the three forms of horizontal gene transfer and explain the difference.
(1) Transformation = Bacteria can acquire new genetic material by taking up free DNA (often plasmids) from their surroundings.
(2) Conjugation = Genetic material is transferred directly from one bacterium (the donor) to another (the recipient) through a physical connection (a pilus).
(3) Transduction (viral) = A bacteriophage (a virus that infects bacteria) acts as a vector, transferring DNA from one bacterium to another.
A bacteria, yeast or filamentous fungi in which the genetic material has been changed through in vitro nucleic acid techniques or fusion of cells is referred to as what by the FAO-WHO?
Genetically modified organisms/ GMO
What are the 3 processes by which genetic material may be exchanged between bacteria?
Transformation, Conjugation, Transduction
What compound is considered the universal methyl group donor in metabolic processes?
Methionine
Name 2 ways of transporting solutes across a membrane.
Pressure and electrostatic forces (concentration or electrochemical gradient are both acceptable)
Which lipoprotein transports triacylglycerols and cholesterol from the intestine to other parts of the body?
Chylomicrons
What enzyme, only present in the liver and kidney, converts glucose-6-phosphate to glucose?
Glucose-6-phosphotase
Hydroxylation of lysine to hydroxylysine in collagen is dependent on which cofactor?
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Hydroxylation of lysine and proline amino acids occurs inside the lumen. This process is dependent on ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) as a cofactor. Further glycosylation of specific hydroxylysine residues occurs.
What is the branch of chemistry concerned with fermentation or activation of enzymes?
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