Biotechnology

Name the two parts of Central Dogma theory.

(1) Transcription (DNA → mRNA; in nucleus) (2) Translation (mRNA → protein; in ribosomes)

Name the three forms of horizontal gene transfer and explain the difference.

(1) Transformation = Bacteria can acquire new genetic material by taking up free DNA (often plasmids) from their surroundings. (2) Conjugation = Genetic material is transferred directly from one bacterium (the donor) to another (the recipient) through a physical connection (a pilus). (3) Transduction (viral) = A bacteriophage (a virus that infects bacteria) acts as a vector, transferring DNA from one bacterium to another.

There are nine enzymes involved in the Kreb cycle. Name 4 of them.

1. Citrate synthase, 2. Aconitase, 3. Isocitrate dehydrogenase, 4. α-ketogultarate dehydrogenase, 5. Succinyl-CoA synthetase, 6. Succinate dehydrogenase, 7. fumarase, 8. Malate dehydrogenase, 9. pyruvate dehydrogenase

In the context of PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) used in food pathogen detection, name the three discrete temperature steps in one cycle and what occurs at each step.

1. Denaturation (High temp): DNA strands separate; 2. Annealing (Lower temp): Primers bind to target sequences; 3. Extension (Intermediate temp): DNA polymerase synthesizes the new DNA strand.

What are the 3 characteristics that make the 16S RNA genes ideal as a phylogenetic molecule?

1. Highly conserved across different species of bacteria and archaea. These conserved regions allow for the design of universal primers, making it easier to amplify the gene from a wide variety of organisms. 2. Universally present in all prokaryotes, making it a universal marker for studying the evolutionary relationships between these organisms. This ubiquity allows for broad comparisons across diverse taxa. 3. Easy to obtain 4. Has multiple copies

What is a diauxic shift?

A diauxic shift is a metabolic change that occurs when a cell switches from using glucose for fermentation to using oxygen for respiration after glucose is depleted. It's a process that happens in yeast cells.

Explain how genetically modified corn resists insect pests.

Bt corn expresses Bacillus thuringiensis toxin genes, producing proteins toxic to specific insect larvae but safe for humans.

Name the 3 classes of inhibition and state if they are real or hypothetical.

Competitive-Real, Noncompetitive-Real, Uncompetitve-Hypothetical

What are three major fuel molecules for ATP production?

Glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids

Name three companies that have received regulatory approval in US to produce and sell lab-grown meat and seafood.

Good meat (owned by Eat Just), Upside Foods, Wildtype

What are immobilized enzymes? Name 3 applications of immobilized enzymes in industry.

Immobilized enzymes are enzymes attached to an inert, insoluble material, allowing for their repeated use and continuous operation in various processes. Lipase: Used in the production of emulsifiers, flavors, fragrances, cosmetics, thermoplastics, agrochemicals, and biofuels. Amylase: Used in the food industry for starch hydrolysis, and in the production of biofuels. Beta-galactosidase: Used in the production of lactose-free dairy products. Penicillin G acylase: Used in the production of penicillin. Invertase: Used in the production of invert sugar. Proteases: Used in the food industry for protein hydrolysis. Pectinase: Used in the food industry for clarifying fruit juice.

Describe the steps involved in recombinant DNA technology.

Isolation of the desired gene. Insertion into a vector (e.g., plasmid). Transformation into host cells. Selection and screening for successful transformants. Expression of the recombinant protein.

Describe the process of fermentation in yogurt production, naming the organisms and their metabolic roles.

Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus ferment lactose → produce lactic acid → decrease pH → cause casein coagulation → yield flavor compounds (acetaldehyde, diacetyl).

Name four organs in which Hexokinase D is found.

Liver, pancreas, small intestine, brain (more specifically hypothalamus).

Name 3 reasons it is advantageous to obtain enzymes from microorganisms.

Microorganisms are very versatile, MO's can be altered by mutations or genetic engineering to produce a greater quantity of enzyme or different enzymes, recovery of enzymes is often easy, readily available, high rate of growth and enzyme production.

Give five types of RNA.

mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, small nuclear RNA, regulatory RNA, ribozymes, double stranded RNA, signal recognition particle RNA, transfer messenger RNA

What is NSLAB and what are 3 examples?

Non-Starter Lactic Acid Bacteria; Lactobacillus curvatus, L. plantarum, Lactobacillus casei

Name 3 nonpolar, 3 polar and 3 charged amino acids.

Nonpolar: Valine, Alanine, Leucine, Isoleucine, Proline. Polar: Glycine, Serine, Cystein, Threonine, Tyrosine. Charged: Lysine, Arginine, Histidine, Aspartic acid, Glutamic acid

Discuss the role of precision fermentation in alternative protein development.

Precision fermentation uses genetically engineered microbes to produce specific proteins (e.g., casein, whey, heme), enabling sustainable, animal-free alternatives with controlled functionality and scalability.

Define the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures of proteins.

Primary: amino acid sequence Secondary: alpha-helix, beta sheet. Tertiary: one complete polypeptide chain with cross bonds linking it together. Quaternary: multiple polypeptide chains assembled as one.